SEED VIABILITY TEST: HOW TO KNOW YOUR SEED IS VIABLE BEFORE PLANTING

What makes most farmers fail is not lack of capital or labor but their inability to attest to the viability of the seed they planted. Seed viability test is very important in the cultivation of crops; you need to know how efficient and productive your seeds are before planting. This is part of the pre-planting operations a farmer must carry out before cultivation. However, most farmers boycott this operation in the quest to reduce or minimize the cost of production.

Seeds are living things and tend to die off after a long period. Seeds undergo a period of dormancy when stored; the ability of a seed to resume growth after the period of dormancy is called viability, thus, a seed that germinates after storage for some period is called a viable seed. Unlike humans, seeds do not show any physical sign of death or when they are not viable, in other words, you cannot recognize a viable seed and a nonviable seeds. Only seed viability test can give you the answer to this. So what is seed viability test and how is it carried out?

Seed viability test is the test carried out on seeds prior to planting to ascertain the possibility of the seed’s growth. It is simple to determine if the seed will resume growth after a period of dormancy. The advantage of seed viability test is that it prevents waste of resources and time. It can be carried out in three (3) ways; these are the common methods of testing viability of seeds. They are:

• Floating method:

     This is the simplest method of carrying out seed viability test. In this method, the seeds are poured into water and allowed to settle for about 30 minutes. After this period, some seeds sink while some float. The sinking ones are the viable once, that is, the good seeds, while the floating ones are the dead seeds. Hence, the floating ones are poured out while the ones that sank are fit for planting.

• Germination test:

     This is like normal planting. Parts of the seeds to be planted are selected at random and planted. After some days, the planted seeds are inspected to determine the growth rate of these seeds. At the end, the good seeds germinate and the bad ones do not germinate. This test takes about 10 days.

• Chemical test:

     The aforementioned methods are regarded as organic method of determining the viability of a seed. The chemical method is very effective and does not require much time like the germination test. It involves the use of a chemical known as Tetrazolium; this chemical is poured on the seeds and the change in color of the seeds is observed. If the seeds turn reddish, it means the seeds are viable and can germinate but if no reaction is observed, it means the seeds are dead and will not germinate. The seeds can be washed and planted immediately.

     These are simple ways to determine if a seed is viable or not. Farmers must ensure they determine the viability of their seed, irrespective of the source of the seed. It helps to secure the investment and assure the farmer of good return.

LIMING: HOW TO IMPROVE SOIL pH.

There are various factors that determine the success of any crop cultivation. Part of them is the soil pH. Soil pH is the degree or amount of acidity or alkalinity of a soil. It is important and highly recommended that farmers test the pH of their soil before planting. Different crops have individual pH preference; some crops are acid tolerant while others are not. In order to put the round peg in the round hole, that is, knowing the type of crop to plant on a particular land, testing of soil pH is highly recommended.

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Soil pH scale ranges from 0-14; having 7 as the neutral point. Any value below 7 means the soil is acidic while above 7 means the soil is alkaline in nature. Most crops thrive best at pH value 6.5-7.5. When a soil has a low pH, that is, acidic; it can be corrected. One of the methods of correcting low soil pH is liming.

So what is liming?
Liming is the act of applying some material, usually calcium and magnesium containing material, to neutralize or correct the soil pH to a favorable level for crop growth and development. In other words, liming is the process of adding liming materials to the soil to raise the soil pH, thus, enhancing crop growth. Liming is a traditional procedure in preparing soil for planting. Materials used in liming process are called liming materials; they are usually calcium and or magnesium rich compounds. What liming materials do is to reduce the acidity of the soil, thus, raising the soil pH to a more favorable level.


Examples of liming materials that can be used to correct your soil pH are:

• Calicitic Aglime: It is a ground Limestone containing mainly calcium carbonate.
• Dolomitic Aglime: It is a ground limestone containing a mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. 
• Slaked lime: It is composed of calcium hydroxide or a mixture of calcium and magnesium hydroxide. 
• Quicklime: It comprises of calcium oxide or a mixture of calcium and magnesium oxide. 
• Marl: It is a deposit of calcium carbonate derived from mollusk shells, usually mixed with silt and clay. 
• Wood ashes

These are the commonly used liming materials. Another important aspect of liming is the effectiveness of the liming material. The fineness of the liming material determines the effectiveness of the liming material; the finer the liming material the more effective and greater the neutralizing activities of the liming material. Hence, fine liming material should be selected ahead of granulated ones.

How to apply liming material to soil
Getting a good and effective liming material is a lofty prerequisite to successful control of the soil pH. The mode of application also contributes greatly to the success of this practice. The best way to apply liming material to soil is through broadcasting. You must ensure you broadcast the liming material evenly on the soil such that the liming material surfaces on virtually all corners and spots on the plot. This can be done using a spreader on a large farm or manually using farm labor.

If this is properly done, the pH of your soil should be adjusted within 2 weeks. Alternatively, you can apply the liming material on strips or borders of the plot. What matters is getting the liming material on your farm and it does its job perfectly.

When all necessary pre-planting operations are carried out as required, farming will be very lucrative and profitable than we envisaged. Doing the necessary practices rightly is a prerequisite to the success of any business.

GUIDE ON BUILDING A MODERN POULTRY HOUSE

Housing is very important in poultry farming; its main function is protection, from adverse weather conditions and predators. These two factors are great threats to the productivity of the poultry birds. Building a modern poultry house has strategies and approaches for it to enhance the productivity of the birds.

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Many poultry businesses fold up today as a result of the ignorance of the farmer. It is very possible you feed your birds with highly nutritious feed, serve fresh clean water and follow a strict medical program yet have a poor production. Productivity of birds does not only lie on the nutrition and health program alone; environmental factors also play a germane role on the productivity of poultry birds. Your poultry house is the interphase between your birds and the environment; hence, poultry house should be constructed such that it compensates the welfare of the birds.

There are different types of poultry house and several factors have to be considered in building a poultry house. A poultry house should be constructed bearing in mind the effects of some environmental factors, such as: heat, rainfall etc.; a good poultry house must abate the effects of these environmental factors. Here are some guides you should follow when constructing a modern poultry house.

• Orientation of the house:

Did you know there is a way you must position your poultry house to enhance their productivity and make the birds very comfortable? Yes, there is. The longest side of your pen, that is, the breadth, should face the direction of the prevailing wind. This has several advantages. The most cogent advantage that your birds receive is even ventilation. Also, moisture dries up easily in such poultry house. Ventilation is very important in poultry farm. It eliminates heat stress and makes the bird comfortable, thus, enhancing their productivity. One of the ways to ensure good ventilation in a poultry house is it orientates the poultry house in the direction of the prevailing wind. For you to know the direction of the wind, just throw up a kite and watch where it moves to up the sky, alternatively, set up a small fire watch the direction of the smoke or hold a strand of thread in the air and watch the direction it orientates to. This is one of the factors to consider before setting up a poultry house.

Materials used in poultry house:
The materials you use in the construction of your poultry house depend on your financial strength. Poultry house can be made with different materials but you have to bear the purpose of the house in mind. The most prominent purpose is protection, from harsh weather and predators. Ensure any material you will use serves this purpose duly.




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• Ventilation:

Ventilation is very important in a modern poultry house. There are several biological processes going on in a poultry house that tends to generate heat; ventilation serves two purposes: elimination of heat stress and drying up of moisture in the poultry house. Heat stress is very detrimental to poultry birds; it can reduce the productivity of birds greatly and also cause death in severe cases. Also, moisture in a poultry house is not good for the well-being of the birds. Moisture provides a favorable condition for disease pathogens to thrive, thus, causing disease outbreak in the farm. Ventilation is the principal solution to these threats; proper ventilation eliminates the heat in the farm and also dries up moisture. The poultry house must be designed in a way that is well ventilated.

• Planting of tree crops:

Trees are beneficial entities to humans, especially those that bear edible fruits. However, deforestation is one of the banes of environmental pollution the world today. Trees are not only good for man; they are as well beneficial to animals. Trees provide fresh air and also bring a cool sensation to animals. Planting a tree around your poultry house makes your birds healthy, eliminates heat stress, provides a cooling effect and shields your birds from harsh weather condition. You can plant tree crops like banana, plantain, orange, mango, etc.; although some of these trees may harbor some pest. This can be controlled with proper security measures, use of repellants etc.

• Protection from predators:

Predators can be micro, in form of bacteria, fungi and others, or macro, in form of snakes. All these can be controlled biologically; there are pest repellants crops you can plant to keep macro predators away from your farm. Also, use of biosecurity is very important, it eliminate the emergence of micro predators; these are very destructive.

• Litter material:

In our homes, we have carpets and rug to adore the floor, so also in a modern poultry house, litter material serves this purpose too. Litter materials are placed on the floor of the pen to absorb moisture from the birds’ droppings, facilitate easy cleaning and also make the birds comfortable. Wood shaving is the common litter material used, others are groundnut husk, newspaper for chicks etc. do not use saw-dust; its small particle size can enter the birds’ eyes and make them blind or cause a respiratory disease.
All the aforementioned guides must be implemented to achieve success in the poultry business. Feeding alone does not determine the success of a poultry farm; these are structural and environmental aids to poultry birds. 

POULTRY FEED ADDITIVES: 8 NATURAL MATERIALS THAT GIVE BRIGHT YELLOW EGG YOLK

Non-nutritional components of poultry diet are called poultry feed additives. They are added to poultry feeds to improve feed performance and animal well-being. Poultry feed majorly contains cereal and legumes; these two components take larger percentage, like 95%, of the feed formulation. Others are vitamins and minerals; they all play significant roles in poultry well-being.

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Feed additives in animal nutrition usually take very small percentage, less than 1%, of the feed composition. They are meant to improve the performance of the animal through boosting the immune system and protecting the animals from various infections. There are different examples of feed additives for poultry, they are: antibiotics, antioxidants, pigmenters etc.; in this article, we shall discuss pigmenters and their relevance in poultry nutrition.

Pigmenters are examples of feed additives for poultry that enhance the quality of the chicken’s egg yolk color. Egg yolk colors are almost completely dependent on the feed served; yolk color is one of the internal qualities of an egg, egg with bright yellow yolk is more preferred to egg with orange or pale color yolk.
The bright yellow color of the yolk is due to the presence of xanthophyll pigment in the diet. It can be sourced naturally or artificially, depending on the preference of the farmer. Yellow maize is a good source of xanthophyll pigment in poultry diet.


Take a look at this:

Yellow maize contains this pigment; when fed to poultry birds, it gives the yolk a bright yellow color. But wheat does not have this pigment. Hence, the use of wheat in poultry diet requires the inclusion of pigmenters as additives to ensure the bright yellow color is achieved.

Poultry feed additives are classified into two; namely:

• Natural or organic feed additives 
• Artificial or synthetic feed additives.

The natural poultry feed additives are those ones that are naturally present in feedstuff, like the presence of xanthophyll in yellow maize. If this maize is used as a whole source of energy in poultry diet, then, inclusion of pigmenter in the feed may not be necessary. However, if other energy feedstuff like wheat is used, then pigmenters can be added to the feed.

Synthetic feed additives are those materials developed to improve the performance of the diet and animal fed. They are the real feed additives. They are not sourced in the feedstuff but synthesized in the laboratory and certified for animal use. Example of synthetic pigmenter is canthaxanthin. This can be added to poultry diet to improve the egg yolk color.

However, people are becoming more conversant with what they consume. Everyone craves organic nutrition; as an organic poultry farmer, instead of adding the synthetic pigmenters to your poultry diet, you can add any of the below material as various researches have proven that they have pigmenting property in them. They are:

• Sunflower Petals 
• Marigold leaves 
• Alfalfa 
• Orange peels 
• Algae 
• Carrot 
• Annatto Seed 
• Chili pepper.

These are examples of feed additives for poultry with the ability of enhancing a bright yellow color in egg yolk. They are natural and have no side effects; unlike the synthetic ones that tend to have residual effects upon consumption. These materials are applied in dried form with no limitation since they are organic in nature. They give better yolk color compare to the synthetic ones. 

GESTATION PERIOD OF FARM ANIMALS

• Livestock production is indeed very lucrative. The business brings smile to the face of the farmer as the farm animals reproduce, thus, increasing the stock population and conversely increasing profitability of the business. This is the function of the gestation period of the farm animals.

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Gestation period is the time interval between the conception period and parturition, that is, the period between the formation of foetus in mature female farm animal and reproduction; we can also call it the period of pregnancy. Gestation period for farm animals varies greatly; some farm animals have short gestation period while others have long gestation period. The knowledge of the gestation period of farm animals is very crucial as it enables farmers plan adequately, aids productive decision making and allows expansion of the business.

After successful copulation, fertilization occurs and the foetus develops. The foetus develops gradually and transforms fully into a replica or kin of the animal within a stipulated period. This period is called gestation period. Parturition, the act of giving birth in farm animal, marks the end of the gestation period. Within this period, farmers are expected to carry out some practices to aid parturition. One of these is the preparation of the pen so as to make the new animal confortable and aid growth.

Aside from the pre-parturition practices the knowledge of gestation period aids, it also helps farmers decide, know when to expand and the expected yield or stock per year. Some animals can reproduce more than 3 times in a year, while others are just once; knowledge of the gestation period helps greatly for planning and decision making to improve the productivity of the farm.

For this sake, I have compiled a list of gestation period of common farm animals. They are:

• Cow

The gestation period for cows is 274 days. Cows have a long gestation period; this means that it takes 274 days for a cow to reproduce after pregnancy has been detected. Also, a cow can only reproduce once in a year, not like other farm animals that can reproduce twice or three times and above in a year.

• Ewe

The average gestation period for ewes is approximately 147 days, ranging from 144 to 152 days. This implies that ewes can reproduce twice in a year.

• Goat

The gestation period for goats and sheep is almost the same. The gestation period for goats ranges from 148 to 152 days with an average gestation period of 150 days. This implies that a goat can also reproduce twice in a year.

• Rabbit

The gestation period for a rabbit is only about 31 days! Rabbit has the shortest gestation period of only one month or less. Rabbits are prolific animals. They can reproduce up to ten times in a year.

As a farmer, gestation period of your flock should always be at your fingertips. Part of the practices you are to carry out during this period is the preparation of your pen; ensure you clean up and disinfect the pen, provide nutritious meal to serve the mother and the young animals. 

SEED TREATMENT: LEARN 5 SEED TREATMENT METHODS

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Seed treatment is one of the pre-planting operations in crop production. This practice is obscure to most farmers, especially those procuring seeds from agro-allied companies; they feel treating the seed is irrelevant. What most farmers are familiar with is crop protection, through the use of herbicides and pesticides.

Seed treatment is a pre-planting operation; hence, it must be carried out before planting the seeds. The question that comes to your lips is how can seed be treated before planting? It is very simple and easy but depends on your purpose and types of seed treatment you are willing to implement. You need to determine what you want to achieve with the seed treatment operation.

Seed treatment is carried out for several reasons. It could be to hasten germination, to protect seeds from destructive pests under the soil, to enhance uniform growth in crops etc.; you need to know what you want to achieve with this operation for you to know how to treat seed. In this article, the type of seed treatment we shall discuss is known as seed scarification.

Seed scarification is one of the seed treatment methods aimed at facilitating quick germination in sown seeds. This type of seed treatment softens the seed coat of the seeds such that it allows imbibition of growth enhancing parameters (water and gases) in seeds, thus, facilitating rapid growth in seeds. Seed germination takes series of processes before the shoot emerges; however, seed scarification has been proven to be very effective in increasing the chance of seed germination.

There are various methods of scarification and these are;

1. Chemical or acid scarification:  

      The purpose of this method is to soften hard or impermeable seed coats through the action of an acid. This is done by soaking the seeds in concentrated sulphuric acid for a period of 2-4 hours according species. After treatment, seeds are thoroughly washed with clean water to make them free of acid and then sown immediately.


   2. Mechanical scarification: 
      In this method, seeds with impermeable or impervious seed coat are rendered permeable to water and gases through rubbing or abrading the seed coat on a hard surface. This can be achieved by:

Placing the seeds between two sand papers, one stationed and the other revolving and rubbing aggressively on the seed coat of the seed.
Rubbing seeds with sharp-sand.
Passing seeds through a machine that scratches the surface.
Filing and notching the seeds to make the seed coats permeable to water.

   3. Boiled water scarification: 
      This is another method of seed treatment. It involves boiling of water to boiling point (100oc); the seeds are then poured in a cloth that is less porous. Then the cloth will be suspended or inserted into the water. The seeds will be there until the water cools. The seeds are then removed from the cloths are sun-dried. When the seeds are properly dried, they can be planted. The method is good for small-sized seeds like: jute (ewedu) seeds, celosia seeds, pepper seeds etc.



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   4. Soaking in water:  
      This is the simplest method of seed scarification. The purpose of soaking seeds in water is to soften hard seed coats, to remove growth inhibitors and to reduce time of germination. The time of soaking seeds in water depends on the hardness of the seed coats. Examples are peas, beans etc.

    5. Stratification or moist chilling: 
      This is another effective method of seed scarification. It involves exposing seeds to low temperature; this brings about prompt and uniform germination. The seeds are arranged in layers of sand in shallow boxes for pits and trenches. This condition helps in rapid germination. It is commonly used for crops like: peach, cherry, oat, grapes.
 


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     Seed treatment is important to prevent seed borne, soil borne and air borne diseases. Scarification, being one of the types of seed treatment, softens the seed coats of a seed to aid imbibition of water into the protoplasm of the seed. Seed treatment is very important as it hastens germination of the seed and enhances the overall productivity of the cultivation. Identify the seed scarification method that can be used on the rice seeds above.
      

CROP NUTRITION: METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

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Several factors are responsible for high yield of crops; crop nutrition is prominent in this regard. There are various methods of fertilizer application; these methods depend on the system of cropping, time of cultivation and type of crop to be grown. Fertilizer application is very important; as side from the nutrients present in the soil, application of fertilizer is necessary to supplement the existing nutrients, thus, making nutrients available for the growing plants always. Methods of fertilizer application depend on several factors; one of which is the nature of the fertilizer. Fertilizers can be organic or inorganic. The method of applying an organic fertilizer is quite different from that of an inorganic fertilizer; this is as a result of the physical and chemical composition of the fertilizer.



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On this note, fertilizer application are classified according to the mode or place of application, type of fertilizer, time of application and rate of fertilizer to be used. Below are the methods of fertilizer application and their various peculiarities.

•  Broadcasting: 

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This is the easiest method of fertilizer application. In this method, the fertilizers are evenly distributed on the surface of the soil. It is a common method used in vegetable farms. Broadcasting as a method of fertilizer application can be carried out in two ways: Basal placement and Top dressing.
 Basal placement is the application of the fertilizer to the base or around the root zone of the plant; in other words, the fertilizers are placed at the root zone of the plant. This method can be used in maize farm and other cereal crops. Top dressing is another method of applying fertilizers to plants; in this method, the fertilizers are evenly broadcasted on the soil surface. It is a common method used in paddy field and wheat.

When inorganic fertilizers are applied using top dressing method, it is advisable that water should be applied immediately so as wash down any trapped particle of fertilizer on the plant leaves. This is because inorganic fertilizers are hygroscopic in nature; hence, they tend to absorb moisture from the crop leading to scorching of the leaves.  

• Placement: 

Placement is a tactical method of applying fertilizers. It is the application of fertilizer to a fixed portion of the soil where the plant can easily take it up for usage. This method of fertilizer application can be used when: the fertilizers are in small quantities, hence, it must be meticulously utilized; when the soil has a low level of fertility, hence, it must be used efficiently by the crops; lastly, when development of root system is poor, hence, used to stimulate rooting. Therefore, you may say that placement is an economical method of fertilizer application. Placement can be done in several ways. They are: plough sole placement, deep placement, localized placement, side dressing and band placement.

In plough sole placement, fertilizers are applied during ploughing. The fertilizers are buried in the furrow (space) made by the plough during operation. This method allows the application of fertilizer prior to planting.

Deep placement is another method of placement commonly used in paddy field. It involves placing the fertilizers near the root zone of the plant. It is used in the application of nitrogenous fertilizers for optimum distribution and usage of the fertilizer in the root zone of the plant. It has several advantages as it prevents loss of nutrient through run off.

Localized placement is another method of fertilizer application that involves the application of fertilizer into the soil close to the seed or plant with the aim of making the nutrient readily available for the plant. This can be done using a seed-cum fertilizer drill planter, where the fertilizer and seed are placed in the same row but at different depth. It is best used in the application of phosphatic fertilizers.

Side dressing is another placement method of applying fertilizers in plants. It involves spreading of fertilizers between rows and around the plants. This is one of the methods used in applying organic fertilizers or manure.

Lastly, row placement; it is a common and simple method of fertilizer application. It involves application of fertilizers in one or both sides of a row. It is commonly used when crops like sugar cane and potato are planted.

•  Foliar application 

As the name implies, it is a method of adjusting or meeting the nutritional requirement of a plant through the leaves. It is a method used in the application of starter solution. Starter solution is the solution of NPK fertilizers at a ratio of 1:1:2 or 1:2:1 applied to young plants at the time of transplanting. Foliar application is effective in the application of nutrients like calcium and other minor nutrients like iron, copper, boron, zinc and manganese.

• Fertigation:

This method is a new and effective way of applying fertilizers, especially liquid fertilizers. Fertigation is the application of fertilizers through irrigation water. In other words, the fertilizers are mixed or poured into the irrigation water; as the irrigation operation starts, water, together with the fertilizer, is applied to the plants, hence, serving two purposes: application of fertilizer and irrigating to the plant. This method is economical and less labor intensive.



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These are different methods of fertilizer application. Fertilizer application is a crucial aspect of crop production. Irrespective of the nutrient content of the land to be cultivated, it is advisable to supplement with fertilizer as the plant grows. This approach increases the fertility of the land during cultivation and conserves the fertility of the soil after cultivation.

COCCIDIOSIS IN POULTRY: CAUSES AND TREATMENT

One of the major diseases in poultry is Coccidiosis. Farmers are often unaware of the outbreak of this diseases until it causes a major loss or breakdown in the farm. Managing chickens could be very challenging; they are highly susceptible to deleterious diseases that can affect their productivity.

Coccidiosis is a protozoan disease caused by Eimeria spp. There are about 7 species but only 5 are common. Of these 5, Eimeria tenella is more fervent and common in chickens. Others are E. necatrix, E. mitis, E. brumet and E. acervulina. Coccidium (plural: Coccidia) is the pathogen that causes coccidiosis; it is hardy in nature and can stay in the soil for a very long period provided the environmental conditions are favorable for its survival.

Coccidiosis is a very dreadful poultry diseases that can ruin a farm within days. Yes, i mean days and not weeks or months. The most ominous feature of this disease is that; it is not easily detectable until it has fully developed and causing acute mortality. This makes the treatment of coccidiosis a less-effective approach to control the disease because larger percentage of the birds would have been lost as a result of heavy infection.

Prior knowledge of the outbreak of Coccidiosis is obscure but it can be prevented and from evolving. Young birds are more susceptible to this disease; usually birds between the age of 4-6 weeks.

How chickens get infected 

As earlier said, Coccidium (plural: Coccidia) is the pathogen that causes Coccidosis. Coccidia stay in the poultry litter; the chickens pick and ingest them from the litter material. After ingestion, the coccidia multiply in the chicken’s system. The coccidia produce eggs called oocytes which are passed out from the chickens as waste; other chickens pick up the eggs and the cycle continues.

Thousand of eggs or oocytes can be passed out as droppings; chickens raised in a crowded or high density rate are at greater risk of getting infected as the pathogens are virulent and are readily available in the environment. The ambient temperature and normal condition that favor the chickens also favor the survival of coccidia.

Coccidiosis in poultry is classified according to the infected parts of the individual species of the pathogens. They are classified as either intestinal or cecal, indicating the action of the pathogen on the intestine and the ceca. E. necatrix affects the intestine while E. tenella affects the ceca. The two parts, intestine and ceca, are prominent internal organ of the chicken.

Cocciodiosis is heavily associated with young birds between the ages of 4 and 6 weeks; it greatly impairs the ceca and small intestine of the chicken, making is a very dreadful disease. The prevalence of this disease is at its peak during the warm season or warmer months. Hence, poultry farmer must be very careful during this period.

Prior knowledge of the outbreak of Coccidiosis is obscure but it can be prevented and from evolving. Young birds are more susceptible to this disease; usually birds between the age of 4-6 weeks.

Signs and symptoms of Coccidiosis 

The symptoms of Cocciodiosis varies with the specie of the Coccidia. This is because the pathogen affects different parts of the chicken. The early symptoms are not usually determined or let me say they are difficult to determine as the egg or oocyte has a very short incubation period of 2-3 days.

1. In E. tenella, chickens show symptoms at about three days after infection; chickens become droopy and emaciated, they huddle together and eat less. At day 4, blood stains appear in the dropping; this is an advanced and dangerous stage of the infection. It becomes more severe at day 6 when there is heavy blood stains in the droppings. This is when most farmers become aware or observe the disease, thus, all efforts to recuperate the chickens become more or less abortive as death of chicken follows this stage.

2. In E. tenella, chickens show symptoms at about three days after infection; chickens become droopy and emaciated, they huddle together and eat less. At day 4, blood stains appear in the dropping; this is an advanced and dangerous stage of the infection. It becomes more severe at day 6 when there is heavy blood stains in the droppings. This is when most farmers become aware or observe the disease, thus, all efforts to recuperate the chickens become more or less abortive as death of chicken follows this stage.

3. In E. necatrix, it is quite different. This specie is chronic and tends to incubate for a long time before showing any symptoms. However, this specie is more disastrous as its major sign is acute mortality; it usually comes in form of a dream as farmer meets sudden high mortality in the farm. This specie usually render farmers restless as farmers are caught agape. High mortality rate is usually associated with this species. Coccidiosis caused by E. necatrix is more dangerous and deadly.

4. In E. acervulina is less pathogenic and least severe of all Eimeria spp. It is usually associated with loss of weight, watery and whitish diarrhea. Generally, the symptoms of Coccidiosis are:

• Blood stains in droppings
• Loss of weight and droopiness.
• Less consumption of feed.
• All intestines swell during post-mortem.
• Also during post-mortem, the intestines become filled with blood. 

How to treat Coccidiosis in chickens

Sincerely, treament of Coccidiosis is always very late but it has to be done to recuperate the surviving chickens. There are several drugs that can be administered to restored the surviving chickens. Drugs for Coccidiosis in poultry are: 

• Baycox
• Amprolium 20
• Cossine 

For quick action during acute mortality, Baycox should be administered. It is very expensive but very effective. Amprolium 20 and Cossine are also good for controlling Coccidiosis; for effective action, Amprolium 20 and Cossine should be administered together for 4-5 days and litter should be changed. Follow the instruction embedded in the package of the drugs to avoid overdose or under-dose.

How to prevent Coccidioiss in chicken 

Prevention as popularly said is better than cure; it is cheap but strict. Coccidiosis can be prevented by strictly adhering to the following practices: 

• Avoid overcrowding or high stocking density rate.
• Ensure the litter is dry always.
• Keep feed and water away from droppings.
• Anti-coccidial drugs like Amprolium can be mixed with feed.  

Coccidiosis can also be treated organically using herbs. Herbs that cure coccidiosis are: 

• Garlic
• Pawpaw seeds
• Ginger 

All these herbs can be crushed and added to the feed or added to drinking water; they are preventive measures that prevent diseases and help boost the immune system of the chickens. 

Vaccination is another effective way of preventing coccidiosis; it helps to increase the immunity of the chicken. Vaccines for coccidiosis in poultry are:  

• Immucox
• Livacox 

These vaccines should be administered to the chicks between day 1-5 orally, through drinking water. 

Coccidiosis is best treated using preventive measures; it can be prevented by keeping the litter dry always and keeping excess moisture away from the farm. If possible, sterilization of the pen and litter should be done before stocking and brooding. It kills the Coccidia present in the poultry house.  

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT CASSAVA VARIETIES.

Cassava, Mahinot spp, is one of the widely consumed crops in the world. Cassava has several byproducts that have been a major food for common man; aside from its consumed products, it is also a good source of industrial products like ethanol and starch. Cassava is widely cultivated in the tropics and has been a very lucrative investment. Over the years, farmers have been faced with huge problems like low yield and attack from pests and diseases; this made farming discouraging and seemed unprofitable.

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However, as a result of the quest to increase productivity and yield of a cassava crop, several modifications have been made to ensure the cassava crop yields optimally. Several varieties of cassava have been developed with productive and stunning characteristics that will make farmers have a good farming experience. These characteristics range from resistance to some particular diseases, hastened maturity, quality tuber and others you would read in this article.

The indigenous cassava has been observed to contain some flaws; these flaws have been improved by various research institutes across the world, like IITA. They have been working effortless to ensure farmers have good farming experience through the provision of improved planting materials. There are several improved varieties of different crops in the system today and they have been very great in terms of performance and yield. In this article, you would read about different cassava varieties and their individual characteristics. These varieties are:

•        TMS 92/0326 
•       TMS 96/1414 
•       TMS 96/0023 
•       TMS 92/0057 
•       TMS 92/0067

TMS 92/0326 

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This is an improved variety of cassava developed by IITA, Nigeria. It has a reddish green petiole and flowers at a height below one meter. It has a long and large tuber with an average length of 75cm and a girth of about 30cm; it is whitish in color when freshly peeled but turns cream when stored. This cassava variety has been bred in such a way that it is highly resistant to major cassava diseases like: Cassava mosaic disease and Cassava bacterial blight; but moderately resistant to cassava anthracnose disease. It has a gestation period of 12 months.

Also, it is tolerant to pests like: cassava green mites and African root and tuber scale. This variety is comparatively high yielding as about 20-30 tons can be harvested from one hectare of cassava farmland, provided all agronomic practices are carried out as required and the planting conditions are favorable.

TMS 96/1414 

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This is another variety of was developed by IITA, Ibadan. It has a red petiole and the color of the tuber is white when freshly peeled but turns cream when stored. It flowers at a height below one meter; the tuber is relatively large with an average length of 60cm and a girth of 20cm. it is highly resistant to cassava mosaic disease but moderately resistant to cassava bacterial blight and cassava anthracnose disease. It is susceptible to African root and tuber scale and cassava green mites.

It has the potential to yield about 22-32 ton per hectare when all agronomic practices are carried out as required and the planting conditions are favorable. It also has a gestation period of 12 months.

TMS 96/0023 

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This is another variety of cassava developed by IITA, Ibadan. This variety is hardier; it has a reddish green petiole and a white tuber when freshly peeled but turns cream when stored. It also flowers at a height below one meter. The tuber is plump and not as large as the aforementioned; the length of the tuber is about 30cm with 20cm girth. It is highly resistant to cassava mosaic disease, cassava anthracnose disease and cassava blight disease; they are also tolerant to cassava green mites and African roots and tuber scales.

About 18 to 27 tons of cassava can be harvested from one hectare, if all conditions are favorable. It takes about 12 month to fully develop and ready for harvesting.

  

TMS 92/0057 

This is another variety developed by IITA, Ibadan. It has a red petiole and white tuber when freshly peeled and remains white in color when stored. It flowers and form branches above one meter height. It has a large tuber of 60cm long with 20cm girth. This variety is another hardy variety; it is highly resistant to cassava mosaic disease but moderately resistant to cassava blight disease and cassava anthracnose disease. It is tolerant to cassava green mites and African root and tuber scale. 

TMS 92/0067 

This is another improved cassava variety developed by IITA, Ibadan. This variety forms its branch when it is about one meter high; it also have red petiole and white tuber when freshly peeled and remains white in color when stored. It produces a small-sized tuber of 30cm long with 20cm girth. It is highly resistant to cassava mosaic disease but moderately resistant to cassava bacterial blight and cassava anthracnose; it is also tolerant to cassava green mites.

18-24 tons can be harvested from one hectare of this variety of cassava. 

Other varieties of cassava are: 

TMS 98/0505
TMS 98/0581
TMS 30572
NR 8082
TME 419
TME 7 

All these varieties are improved varieties that can be gotten at IITA office across the world. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) is an African-based international research institute established in 1967. They are saddled with the responsibility of providing improved planting materials to enhance increase in productivity and profitability. As a farmer, who is passionate about increasing farm output, do not be far from IITA; you will get new practices and innovative information from IITA.